Leaders and subordinates in Spain Essay

Influenced by its collectivist past, family values, a sense of identity and belonging to a group, are constitutive parts of society in Spain. They care for each other in society like a family. For many Spanish people, the family is effectively a replacement for the state. Generally, Spaniards are very conservative and they will resist making decisions on hazardous matters, particularly if the consequences of their decision would affect other people. Thus, most Spaniards will look for support and approval of family, friends and co-workers before acting on their own. The Spanish believe if you are not a part of a group, neighbourhood, town or business organisation then you are not an integral part of society. This important aspect of the Spanish collectivist culture might restrict business activities and force the ‘outsider’ and visitors to the country to bear down their ‘outsider’ status by fitting into a group. However, regarding personal attributes, individualism is highly valued in Spain, along with an emphasis on character and social status. Therefore, personal qualities, appearance, image and personal relationships are extremely substantial elements in modern Spanish culture. Also, personal attributes and character are frequently valued as highly as technical ability, experience or professional competence. While being rather collectivists in their private lives the Spanish show distinct individualism in business context. When doing business in Spain, you will discover that individualism is especially predominant in management, where Spanish managers are less inclined to prefer group decision making and team orientation, as sharing the burden of decision-making is seen as a sign of weakness. Motivation is based on individual rather than collective relationships. The fact that only the individual in highest authority makes the final decision indicates that decision-making can become very slow and tedious, for many levels of management will have to be consulted in order to analyse the proposition. Therefore, it is crucial to maintain a good relationship with these intermediaries in order to succeed. Spain being a feministic society points to a low level of differentiation and discrimination between genders in Spanish society. Machismo is the word for male dominance, and the culture of old men who created it has changed dramatically. Spain has become a very equalitarian society where women are present at universities and work. However, men yet hold the majority of positions within companies. The reason for that is that Spanish men still restrain to treat women as equals in society. Many women in Spain are career oriented and seek high positions in society. Their social and educational status often assigns the role they eventually play in business. Despite the advancement women have made up to date, the change of women trying to achieve higher positions is progressing very slowly, due to the major barrier of it being the mentality of the females themselves. An example for changed/changing attitudes is Soledad Becerril who became not only the first mayoress in the early 90’s but also a symbol for many women in Spain of how Spanish females have made progress in the last years. She was also the first woman to become minister in the government, in 1981. And that is very significant of how Spain has changed and how it continues to do so. Furthermore, masculinity and femininity can be referred to the goals that are aimed for in professional life. Spain being a feministic society indicates issues of security of the job, good employer-employee relationship, pleasant cooperation with the colleagues and friendly work environment. Also, Spanish managers tend to pay more attention to consensus and apart from that, they like to rely on their intuition. HAMPDEN-TURNER & TROMPENAARS Spaniards tend to particularism rather than universalism. Therefore, at work Spanish seek gratification through personal relationships, especially with their superiors. Charismatic leaders find it easy to put their personal stamp on every area in a business. Most of the time job descriptions in Spain have a different function compared to the job descriptions in other countries. In Spain they seldom serve for selecting an employee, but subsequently they will be tailor-made for the favoured candidate. Spanish culture tolerates – even advocates – the expression of emotions (affectivity), also in the business environment. The admiration and display of heated, vital and animated expressions are just as common as fluent and dramatic delivery of statements in Spain. People from diffuse cultures carry their status everywhere; your boss remains your boss and will expect the same respect even if you meet him/her at the gym. Spain indicates to be a specific culture, where official relationships are carefully isolated from relationships of other nature. Using the previous example it means that you may show respect to your boss at the office but his status will not follow him outside the office, and he/she may well ask you for advice. This explains the Spanish being paradoxical in their decision making and in their relation to the community. As a consequence of the fact that Spaniards separate work and personal matters, nobody would take work-related criticism personally. Another theory is that people from diffuse cultures prefer to â€Å"circle around† and establish a relationship before any deal is done; those from specific cultures would rather get straight to the point, focus on the deal first and the relationship will flow from that. This definition contradicts the Spanish being a specific society as they need long discussions prior getting down to business and want to know the person they do business with. Therefore, networks are quite important. For Spanish, status is a thing that is given to them because of what they are (ascribed). It does not matter what you do but what or who you are. Ultimately, status and respect are conferred with the aid of family ties and connections. Concepts like bien educado (good education) and enchufado (good connections) distinguish this phenomenon. Achievement-oriented concepts like ‘pay for performance’ cause for incomprehension in societies like Spain. FUKUYAMA Fukuyama suggests Spain to be a low-trust society where workers are isolated by a series of bureaucratic rules. He describes Spain as a society with strong families and family businesses, a strong state and large foreign owned companies, where hierarchies are necessary in order to force those by distinct rules and measures, who do not act out ethical codes. Evidence of different leadership styles in Spain backs up this theory. A study on ‘Leadership from a Spanish perspectivei drafted by Instituto de Empresa and Deloitte stated that 56% of Spanish Directors prefer a participative leadership style. The report shows that future leaders have to act as coaches, and they must issue their subordinates with the skills and knowhow they need to work efficiently with their teams. However, participative leadership is not the norm among the Spanish directors. Therefore, there is a need for adapting the other styles and make them more participative which requires great commitment from the leaders. The styles least preferred by Spanish senior managers are those based on compulsion with little or no participation of employees and exception-based management where the director only steps in to sort out mistakes. Leaders of relatively new businesses are better at leadership styles, which are based on objectives and development. Where different sectors are concerned, the report unveils how directors in the financial sector tend to use leadership styles that are more direct, transactional and less oriented to learning. While companies in the technology sector give more importance to coaching and vision. MONOCHRONIC vs. POLYCHRONIC Spaniards can be classed as polychronic where nothing seems solid or firm, and there are always changes right up to the very last minute or even in plans for the future. Polychronic cultures are unconventional and flexible with time because it is not seen as a resource or as opportunity cost. Usually start times are flexible and schedules are unrushed. For example, it is not considered to be impolite to keep people waiting, as long as it does not exceed 30 minutes. Since time is also non-linear Spanish tend to manage several tasks at once, often in an unplanned sequence (e. g. salespeople in stores talk to several people at once rather than give only one customer their attention and taking people in turn; a meeting can be interrupted by a phone call; etc.). Another significant cultural difference is the smaller radius of personal space in Spain. Spaniards are most likely not to appologise when bumping into each other or pushing their way through crowds, which can be a shock to visitors from foreign countries. In the business environment, when it comes to forecasting, plans are often based on assumptions, intuition and experience because every day is regarded as unpredictable. Spaniards in the business environment usually make decisions based on judgement, experience and political realities. The supervisory style allows for the rules to be circumvented, whereas style and creativity are highly valued. Titles describe a person’s status, which people take pride in, causing great motivation for competition in organisations. Additionally, personal feelings affect the performance. Spanish managers feel that the employees must be watched, thus giving them the total control where also mistakes can be blamed on other people. However, the supervision is based on trust and some power is still delegated. LEADERSHIP STYLE Generally, the leadership style in Spain, in terms of concern for production and concern for people, demonstrates a high concern for people and little concern for production, whereby they try to avoid conflicts and concentrate on being liked, even at the expense of production. Managers in Spain are acquiring some qualities they look up to in other leaders. However, this contradicts with the theory stated above. Nevertheless, evidence suggest that Spanish leaders are still concerned about their leadership style. One of the conclusions of the first study on i Leadership from a Spanish perspectivei drafted by Instituto de Empresa and Deloitte indicated that 75% of Spain’s directors say that they regularly, or almost always use coaching, a personalised style that focuses on employee development. These leadership criteria are essential when it comes to competitiveness and organisations’ survival. 41% of directors stated that their preferred style of leadership is contingent reinforcement, which rewards subordinates for their achievements. 37% use the goal-oriented style, based on meeting challenges. Analysing the relations between leaders and subordinates in Spain showed that only 46% of Spanish leaders have a good concept of their subordinates. These leaders tend to use coaching as their preferred style of leadership. 26% of survey participants, however, point out having a quite negative concept of their subordinates. These leaders show a clear inclination to use directive and transactional management styles. Finally, the results of the study show clearly that Spanish development-oriented leaders are also very concerned about developing and educating their subordinates.

Producing aspirin by vacuum filtration Essay Example

Producing aspirin by vacuum filtration Essay Example Producing aspirin by vacuum filtration Paper Producing aspirin by vacuum filtration Paper Method: Collect all the equipment, using a measuring balance weigh out 5. 0g of 2-hydrobenzoic acid in a conical flask. Then add 7cm3 of ethanoic acid anhydride and also add three drops of concentrated sulphuric acid.   At the top of the conical flask fit the air condenser and mix together the reagents and then add to a water bath with a temperature between 50- 60  °C for 15 minutes.   After you have taken the conical flask out of the water bath then run it under cold water, remember not to remove the air condenser. Next add 75cm3 of distilled water, and then using a glass rod stir well. Then using a separating funnel adds filter paper to the top of the vacuum filter and then pours the solution into the Buchner funnel. Release the tap so water allows the filtration to process quickly. Then collect the solids which have been separated in the vacuum filtration Re-crystallise by transferring the crude product to 100cm3 flask and add in 15cm3 of ethanol, alongside 45cm3 of distilled water. Then fit the air condenser and place the conical flask into the water bath until the crude has dissolved   Allow the solution to cool and then collect the product by vacuum filtration. Finally dry the product at room temperature. Vacuum filtration: Vacuum filtration is a technique used for separating a solid product from a solvent, or liquid reaction mixture, the mixture of solid and solvent is poured through a filter paper in a Buchner funnel, the solid is trapped in the filter paper and the liquid is poured through into a flask below by a vacuum. A filter is used to separate the solid from liquid by a vacuum pump to force the liquid through the filter. This is why vacuum filtration is used to obtain recrystallized solids such as aspirin. The liquid in the solution will pass through the filter paper quicker in order to achieve a dryer product in less time. When recrystallizing the aspirin the impurities were kept in the solution, I used the process of vacuum filtration, this process got most of the water out which took out the impurities too. This process was really good to use, once all the impurities were took out the aspirin was ready to use for the next process. Re-crystallisation: Re-crystallisation is technique to dispatch a soluble. This technique relies on gentle evaporation of the solution over heat. The slower the evaporation, the bigger the crystals. This procedure of crystal formation helps to clean the substance. This is because the structure of crystal is reliant on on the form of the lattice pattern. Re-crystallisation depends on on alteration in solubility of substances so the impurities substances crystal out first so the rest can re-crystallise. Aspirin is less soluble then the impurity, so when adding cold water to it the saturated point reduces. As this reduces this shows that no more is able to dissolve allowing white solids to form. These solids form they crystallise so more products comes out allowing more crystallisation to occur leaving behind the impurities. Melting point results table: Test tubes Temperature Ca ¦ 1st try 132 Ca ¦ 2nd try 128 Ca ¦ 3rd try 130 Ca ¦ Average of the temperature: 132 + 128 + 130 = 390 Ca ¦ 390Ca ¦ = 130Ca ¦ 3 AVERAGE = 130 Ca ¦ The melting point of pure aspirin: The melting point of aspirin is between138-140 Ca ¦, my results were lower than that, this is because in my aspirin they were impurities, these impurities will lowered the melting point of my aspirin therefore making my melting point of the aspirin that I made about 130Ca ¦. Another example is when in winter the, vehicles go around putting salt on the top of the snow, the salt decreases the melting point of the snow therefore making it easier for road users to drive. So having impurities will decrease the melting point but it increases the boiling point. One way to think of it is that impurities get in the way of the bonds that would be holding the solid together. By disrupting the normal organization of atoms or molecules in that solid, the impurities weaken the bonds holding the solid together (keep in mind these are bonds BETWEEN atoms and molecules, not within them). As these intermolecular bonds weaken, it takes less energy to pull the molecules apart, which means it will melt to a liquid at a lower temperature. Conclusion- in my conclusion I saw that my aspirin had less impurities compared to the commercial aspirin, the commercial aspirin showed more dots, this is because the commercial aspirin had other ingredients added in, this will have an effect on the aspirin, it will make it more impure as for my aspirin it didn’t have other substances added in therefore it wasn’t impure as much as the commercial aspirin. Method:- First I got a TLC plate and measured 1cm above the plate and drew a line, then I measured 4cm wide from the side. Measure 1cm from the side, take 2 test tubes and put in a 3rd of the aspirin with the spatula into the test tube, then a 3rd of the commercial aspirin into another test tube. Add 2. 5 ml of ethanol and 2. 5ml of dye chloromethane to another test tube and mix it together. Take a pipette and add 1cm of the solution to each test tube containing the aspirin, shake well do the aspirin dissolves, then get a capillary tube and put it on the TLC Plate and let it dry, you place the dots with the capillary tube four times and see the colour, then get a beaker and add ethanol acetate into the beaker and wait until the four dots go up on the TLC Plate and change colour and then make a mark. Results:-From my results I got two different results this is because, I used two different aspirins, a commercial aspirin which affected the results because in the commercial aspirin, chemicals where added and in the original aspirin I got normal results. Evaluation: While I was doing experiments in found it easy to work with a partner, the method was easy to set up, I found it difficult to understand the concept of some of the techniques used. Io found it easy to put the equipment away and use it, I had no problem. But because of the science laboratory, we didn’t have all of the resources that we needed so we didn’t make pure aspirin, if I had to do the experiments again I would make sure that I have all the resources that I need to make pure aspirin.

Managing Diversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Managing Diversity - Essay Example personality and even income and marital status all differ from person to person (Ironson, et al., 1989) This paper would like to focus on managing diversity in these organizations, and how the members belonging to such organizations manage to deal with their differences, along with the differences of others. Through this paper, the writer would like to investigate how organizations are structured in such a way that its members are all respected and valued. Furthermore, the writer would also like to study the positive and negative effects of diversity issues, and the controversies that surround it. Â   The concept of managing diversity in an organization basically focuses on strategies that can be taken in order to create a positive work environment for a diverse group of people. Differences between individuals tend to create problems in an organization because it is a given fact that two people cannot possibly be alike in all aspects (Child, 1973) Therefore, this could result in poor production of work and could possibly hinder or slow down progress within an organization. In the workplace, diversity could mean issues regarding discrimination against individuals, which naturally, could lead to problems within the organization, as a result of conflicts that could occur. In the United States, the 1970’s saw a need for a federal enforcement of equal employment opportunity, or EEO and affirmative action, or AA law that was intended to abolish discrimination in the workplace. Affirmative action would refer to policies that provide equal opportunities to individuals regardless of their race, gender and ethnicity. These policies are not limited to the workplace but also extend towards educational institutions and as well as health care programs and facilities. The aim of such programs were to show the Americans the importance of social equality among its people and the others who have chosen to consider America as their home. Furthermore, the programs were aimed to

Revolution and Popular War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Revolution and Popular War - Essay Example "Everything that we did was for our children so that they could learn to read, so they could have a better life, then we, with this idea, participated in the Revolution. With the idea that they were going to learn to read, that they were going to learn many things that they didnt know, with this we integrated in the process of the Revolution," Ser Madre en Nicaragua (Being a Mother in Nicaragua) The need to foster better lives saw women form self help groups and organisations such as child care and community service. It is also recorded that women also joined armies and vigilant groups to modulate the strife being accosted on the males. During and after the Sandinista war, it was quite a struggle in terms of economic index. The Nicaragua states generally had US$ 1.6 billion, of which was payable in a time span of not less than five years. The government formed bodies of workers union to bolster the overall GDP of the state so that the foreign debt would be paid. Apparently, the government partnered with the private sector to ensure that more investment be generated. They were responsible for renegotiating the foreign debt and channelling foreign economic aid through the state-owned International Reconstruction Fund (Fondo Internacional de Reconstruction--FIR). The new government received bilateral and multinational financial assistance and also rescheduled the national foreign debt on advantageous terms. Pledging food for the poor, the junta made restructuring the economy its highest priority. . Workers in organisations also put in extra adjustments by putting in longer hours in offices to get more work down and improve on the daily accountability of finances. Immediately after the revolution, the FSLN also developed mass organizations representing most popular interest groups in Nicaragua. The most significant of these included the Sandinista Workers Federation (Central Sandinista de Trabajadores--CST) representing

Dimensions of Community Environmental Health Essay

Dimensions of Community Environmental Health - Essay Example Alcohol intake is a personal choice and the character exhibits the effect of this poison on his physical strength as well as his personality. Steady drinking of alcohol for a long period of time results in the dependence of the brain and also leads to withdrawal manifestation during episodes of abstinence. Alcoholism is a major health hazard and affects normal brain’s chemistry, blood flow to frontal lobes and the nerve cells. Over time, neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine is depleted leading to mood problems, physical weakness, liver pathologies and increasing dependence (A.D.A.M) Smoking is another example of a voluntary source of health hazard that has an effect both on the environment and public health. The tobacco smoke contains 43 carcinogens which are known out of the thousands of chemicals present in it. Although, smokers are exposed to high incidence of lung cancer, voice changes, and other health hazards, but the people who are exposed to the smoke are also at risk. Lung cancer can also occur in non-smokers who are exposed to the tobacco smoke, and it can lead to childhood disorder such as bronchitis and heart disease (Brownson, Eriksen, Davis and Warner 163). Because of the very strong carcinogenic effects, public health measures have progressed over the years. This has resulted in workplace restrictions to smoking, bans on public smoking and even voluntary measures taken in private industries.

Connecting assets and choosing your community Research Paper

Connecting assets and choosing your community - Research Paper Example Firstly, research findings indicate that sedentary lifestyles predispose children to obesity (Ogden et al., 2014). As such, open spaces and play areas are critical to increasing physical activity. Secondly, effective obesity prevention initiatives require a multidisciplinary approach by various healthcare professions (Saxe, 2011). Therefore, healthcare expertise will bring together physicians, psychologists, dieticians and other support staff. Thirdly, high-calorie foods contribute largely to the risks of childhood obesity. High-calorie foods are more appealing to low-income houses because they are less expensive (Ogden et al., 2014). Consequently, holistic and sustainable food policies will increase access to both affordable and healthy foods. In the same vein, the policies will also increase opportunities for physical activity. For example, the city planning department can formulate policies that will require residential developers to provide playgrounds and gym facilities. Fourthly, childhood obesity predisposes children to the risk of chronic diseases, which include Type 2 diabetes and blood pressure (Ogden et al., 2014). Diagnostic tools for blood pressure and Type 2 diabetes will ensure early diagnosis and management. Furthermore, Body Mass Index (BMI) charts will be necessary to identify the risk level among children. Finally, health education is a critical nursing intervention in the sense that it gives individuals greater control over their health and well-being (Saxe, 2011). Conference facilities are thus required to educate parents and family members about healthy lifestyles. One partner does not own the identified assets. Accordingly, the nursing plan will incorporate assets from different partners. Potential partners will include the mayor of the city, health providers within the community, community-based organizations, religious leaders, and parents. All theses

Defining And Understanding Holography Physics Essay

Defining And Understanding Holography Physics Essay Holography,  method  of  obtaining three-dimensional photographic images. These images are obtained without a lens, so the method is also called lensless photography. The records are called holograms (Greek holos, whole; gram, message). The theoretical principles of holography were developed by the British physicist Dennis Gabor in 1947. The first actual production of holograms took place in the early 1960s, when the laser became available. By the late 1980s the production of true-color holograms was possible, as well as holograms ranging from the microwave to the X-ray region of the spectrum. Ultrasonic holograms were also being made, using sound waves. Holography  is one of the remarkable achievements of a modern science and technology. Holograms have unique property to restore the high-grade volumetric image of real subjects. The word holography originated from the Greek words holos whole and grapho write, that means complete record of the image. Holography represents photographic process in a broad sense of this word, essentially differs from a usual photo because there is a registration not only  intensity  in a photosensitive material, but also  phase  of light waves, scattered by the object and carried the complete information about three-dimensional structure of the object. As the medium of mapping of the reality, hologram has unique property: unlike usual photo, the  holographic image  can reproduce exactly three-dimensional copy of the original object. Such image with set of views, varied with change of supervision, has amazing realness and often looks like the real object. Unlike photography or painting, holography can render an object with complete dimensional fidelity. A hologram can create everything your eyes see size, shape, texture and relative position. However, if you try to touch a holographic image, all youll find is focused light. History of holography Holography is known from 1947 when British (native of Hungary) scientist Dennis Gabor   produced the theory of holography while he was trying to improve the resolution of electron microscope .Gabor coined the term which we know today i.e. holography by the greek word holos, which means whole while gramma means message. Further development in the field was during the next period because light sources available at that time was not truly coherent . This problem was overcome in  1960  by Russian scientists  N. Bassov  and  A. Prokhorov  and American scientist  Charles Townswith by the invention of the laser, whose pure, intense light was ideal for making holograms. In that year the pulsed-ruby laser was developed by Dr.  T.H. Maimam. This laser system  (unlike the continuous wave laser normally used in holography) emits a very powerful burst of light that lasts only a few nanoseconds (a billionth of a second). It effectively freezes movement and makes it possible to produce holograms of high-speed events, such as a bullet in flight, and of living subjects. The first hologram of a person was made in  1967, paving the way for a specialized application of holography: pulsed holographic portraiture. In  1962  Emmett Leith and Juris Upatnieks of the University of Michigan recognized from their work in side-reading radar that holography could be used as a 3-D visual medium. In 1962 they read Gabors paper and simply out of curiosity decided to duplicate Gabors technique using the laser and an  off-axis technique  borrowed from their work in the development of side-reading radar. The result was the first laser transmission  hologram of 3-D objects (a toy train and bird). These transmission holograms produced images with clarity and realistic depth but required laser light to view the holographic image. Their pioneering work led to standardization of the equipment used to make holograms. Today, thousands of laboratories and studios possess the necessary equipment: a continuous wave laser, optical devices (lens, mirrors and beam splitters) for directing laser light, a film holder and an isolation table on which exposures are made. Stability is absolutely essential because movement as small as a quarter wave- length of light during exposures of a few minutes or even seconds can completely spoil a hologram. The basic off-axis technique that Leith and Upatnieks developed is still the staple of holographic methodology. Also in  1962  Dr.  Yuri N. Denisyuk  from Russia combined holography with 1908 Nobel Laureate Gabriel Lippmanns work in natural color photography.  Denisyuks approach  produced a white-light reflection hologram which, for the first time, could be viewed in light from an ordinary incandescent light bulb. Another major advance in display holography occurred in  1968when Dr.  Stephen A. Benton  invented white-light transmission holography while researching holographic television at Polaroid Research Laboratories. This type of hologram can be viewed in ordinary white light creating a rainbow image from the seven colors which make up white light. The depth and brilliance of the image and its rainbow spectrum soon attracted artists who adapted this technique to their work and brought holography further into public awareness. Bentons invention is particularly significant because it made possible mass production of holograms using an embossing technique. These holograms are printed by stamping the interference pattern onto plastic. The resulting hologram can be duplicated millions of timesfor a few cents apiece. Consequently, embossed holograms are now being used by the publishing, advertising, and banking industries. In  1972  Lloyd Cross  developed the integral hologram by combining white-light transmission holography with conventional cinematography to produce moving 3-dimensional images. Sequential frames of 2-D motion-picture footage of a rotating subject are recorded on holographic film. When viewed, the composite images are synthesized by the human brain as a 3-D image. In 70s Victor Komar and his colleagues at the All-Union Cinema and Photographic Research Institute (NIFKI) in Russia, developed a prototype for a projected holographic movie. Images were recorded with a pulsed holographic camera. The developed film was projected onto a holographic screen that focused the dimensional image out to several points in the audience. Holographic artists have greatly increased their technical knowledge of the discipline and now contribute to the technology as well as the creative process. The art form has become international, with major exhibitions being held throughout the world. The commonly and widely used way of imaging of the reality is the photography. A photograph is basically the recording of the differing intensities of the light reflected by the object  and imaged by a lens. However, information about dimensions of the object contained not only in amplitude (intensity), but also in a phase of light waves. A great difference between holography and photography is the information recorded. This difference is why photographs are two dimensional (2-D) images while holograms are three dimensional (3-D) images. Photographs contain only one view point of an object. Our eyes need a minimum of two view points in order to see depth. Vision using two viewpoints of an object is called stereoscopic vision. Each eye receives a slightly different view point of an object, our brain combines the two and we perceive depth. We can fool our eyes into seeing photographs in three dimensions by taking two slightly different views of an object and allowing each eye to see only one image, the right image for the right eye and the left image for the left eye. We can do this with a stereoscope (for pictures) or with polarized glasses (for movies). The shortcoming of stereoscopic images is that when we move our head from side to side or up and down, we still only see the same two view points, whereas we should be seeing continuously changing viewpoints of the object. The image therefore doesnt quite appear to be three dimensional. In order to make a record of a three dimensional object we need to record this continuous set of viewpoints of the object. Estimating sizes of the objects and considering shape  and direction of shadows from these objects, we can create in our mind general representation about volumetric properties of the scene, represented in a photo. But, if sizes of the objects are identical and there are no shadows, volumetric content of the photographed scene is completely lost. For example, we can not define in the photo of snowflakes on a dark background, which of them is closer, and which of them is farther. Holography is the only visual recording medium that can record our three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional recording medium and playback the original object or scene to the unaided eyes as a three dimensional image. The image demonstrates complete parallax and depth-of-field and floats in space either behind, in front of, or straddling the recording medium.